Battle of Yorktown in the American Revolution

Battle of Yorktown in the American Revolution The Battle of Yorktown was the last major engagement of the American Revolution (1775-1783) and was fought September 28 to October 19, 1781.  Moving south from New York, a combined Franco-American army trapped Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis army against the York River in southern Virginia. After a brief siege, the British were compelled to surrender. The battle effectively ended large-scale fighting in North America and ultimately the Treaty of Paris which ended the conflict.   Armies Commanders American French General George WashingtonLieutenant General Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau8,800 Americans, 7,800 French British Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis7,500 men Allies Unite During the summer of 1781, General George Washingtons army was encamped in the Hudson Highlands where it could monitor the activities of  Lieutenant General Henry Clintons British army in New York City. On July 6, Washingtons men were joined by French troops led by Lieutenant General Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau.  These men had landed at Newport, RI before proceeding overland to New York. Washington initially intended to utilize the French forces in an attempt to liberate New York City, but met resistance from both his officers and Rochambeau. Instead, the French commander began to advocate for a strike against exposed British forces to the south. He supported this argument by stating that  Rear Admiral Comte de Grasse intended to bring his fleet north from the Caribbean and that there were easier targets along the coast. Fighting in Virginia During the first half of 1781, the British expanded their  operations in Virginia. This began with the arrival of a small force under Brigadier General Benedict Arnold  which landed at Portsmouth and later raided Richmond. In March, Arnolds command became part of a larger force overseen by Major General William Phillips. Moving inland, Phillips defeated a militia force at Blandford before burning warehouses in Petersburg.  To curb these activities, Washington dispatched the  Marquis de Lafayette  south to oversee resistance to the British. On May 20, the army of Lieutenant General  Lord Charles Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg. Having won a bloody victory at Guilford Court House, NC that spring, he had moved north into Virginia believing that the region would be easy to capture and receptive to British rule. After uniting with Phillips men and receiving reinforcements from New York, Cornwallis commenced raiding into the interior.   As the summer progressed Clinton ordered Cornwallis to move towards the coast and fortify a deep water port. Marching to Yorktown, Cornwallis men commenced building defenses while Lafayettes command observed from a safe distance.   Marching South In August, word arrived from Virginia that Cornwallis  army was encamped near Yorktown, VA. Recognizing that Cornwallis army was isolated, Washington and Rochambeau began discussing options for moving south. The decision to attempt a strike against Yorktown was made possible by the fact that de Grasse  would bring his French fleet north to support the operation and prevent Cornwallis from escaping by sea. Leaving a force to contain Clinton in New York City, Washington and Rochambeau began moving 4,000 French and 3,000 American troops south on August 19 (Map). Eager to maintain secrecy, Washington ordered a series of feints and sent false dispatches suggesting that an attack against New York City was imminent. Reaching Philadelphia in early September, Washington endured a brief crisis when some of his men refused to continue the march unless they were paid one months back wages in coin. This situation was remedied when Rochambeau loaned the American commander the needed gold coins. Pressing south, Washington and Rochambeau learned that de Grasse had arrived in the Chesapeake and landed troops to reinforce Lafayette. This done, French transports were sent north to ferry the combined Franco-American army down the bay.   Battle of the Chesapeake Having arrived in the Chesapeake, de Grasses ships assumed a blockading position. On September 5, a British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir Thomas Graves arrived and engaged the French. In the resulting Battle of the Chesapeake, de Grasse succeeded leading the British away from the mouth of the bay. While the running battle that ensued was tactically inconclusive, de Grasse continued to draw the enemy away from Yorktown.   Disengaging on September 13, the French returned to the Chesapeake and resumed blockading Cornwallis army. Graves took his fleet back to New York to refit and prepare a larger relief expedition. Arriving at Williamsburg, Washington met with de Grasse aboard his flagship Ville de Paris on September 17. After securing the admirals promise to remain in the bay, Washington focused on concentrating his forces. Joining Forces With the Lafayette As troops from New York reached Williamsburg, VA, they joined with the forces of the Lafayette who had continued to shadow Cornwallis movements. With the army assembled, Washington and Rochambeau began the march to Yorktown on September 28. Arriving outside the town later that day, the two commanders deployed their forces with the Americans on the right and the French on the left. A mixed Franco-American force, led by the Comte de Choissey, was dispatched across the York River to oppose the British position on Gloucester Point. Working Towards Victory In Yorktown, Cornwallis held out hope that a promised relief force of 5,000 men would arrive from New York. Outnumbered more than 2-to-1, he ordered his men to abandon the outer works around the town and fall back to the main line of fortifications. This was later criticized as it would have taken the allies several weeks to reduce these positions by regular siege methods. On the night of October 5/6, the French and Americans began construction of the first siege line. By dawn, a 2,000-yard long trench opposed the southeast side of the British works. Two days later, Washington personally fired the first gun. For the next three days, French and American guns pounded the British lines around the clock. Feeling his position collapsing, Cornwallis wrote to Clinton on October 10 calling for aid. The British situation was made worse by a smallpox outbreak within the town. On the night of October 11, Washingtons men began work on a second parallel, just 250 yards from the British lines. Progress on this work was impeded by two British fortifications, Redoubts #9 and #10, which prevented the line from reaching the river. Attack in the Night The capture of these positions was assigned to General Count William Deux-Ponts and Lafayette. Extensively planning the operation, Washington directed the French to mount a diversionary strike against the Fusiliers Redoubt at the opposite end of the British works.   This would be followed by Deux-Ponts and Lafayettes assaults thirty minutes later.  To help increase the odds of success, Washington selected a moonless night and ordered that the effort be made using bayonets only.   No soldier was permitted to load their musket until the assaults had began. Tasking 400 French regulars with the mission of taking Redoubt #9, Deux-Ponts gave command of the assault to Lieutenant Colonel Wilhelm von Zweibrà ¼cken.   Lafayette gave leadership of the 400-man force for Redoubt #10 to Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton. On October 14, Washington directed all of the artillery in the area to concentrate their fire on the two redoubts.  Around 6:30 PM, the French commenced the diversionary effort against the Fusiliers Redoubt.   Moving forward as planned,  Zweibrà ¼ckens men had difficulty clearing the abatis at Redoubt #9. Finally hacking through it, they reached the parapet and pushed back the Hessian defenders with a volley of musket fire. As the French surged into the redoubt, the defenders surrendered after a brief fight.   Approaching Redoubt #10, Hamilton directed a force under Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens to circle to the rear of the enemy to cut off the line of retreat to Yorktown. Cutting through the abatis, Hamiltons men climbed through a ditch in front of the redoubt and forced their way over the wall.   Encountering heavy resistance, they ultimately overwhelmed and captured the garrison. Immediately after the redoubts were captured, American sappers began extending the siege lines. The Noose Tightens: With the enemy growing nearer, Cornwallis again wrote to Clinton for help and described his situation as very critical. As the bombardment continued, now from three sides, Cornwallis was pressured into launching an attack against the allied lines on October 15. Led by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Abercrombie, the attack succeeded in taking some prisoners and spiking six guns, but was unable to breakthrough. Forced back by French troops, the British withdrew. Though the raid had been moderately successful, the damage inflicted was quickly repaired and the bombardment of Yorktown continued. On October 16, Cornwallis shifted 1,000 men and his wounded to Gloucester Point with the goal of transferring his army across the river and breaking out to the north. As the boats returned to Yorktown, they were scattered by a storm. Out of ammunition for his guns and unable to shift his army, Cornwallis decided to open negotiations with Washington. At 9:00 AM on October 17, a single drummer mounted the British works as a lieutenant waved a white flag. At this signal, the French and American guns halted the bombardment and the British officer was blindfolded and taken into the allied lines to commence surrender negotiations. Aftermath Talks commenced at the nearby Moore House, with Laurens representing the Americans, the Marquis de Noailles the French, and Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Dundas and Major Alexander Ross representing Cornwallis. Through the course of the negotiations, Cornwallis attempted to obtain the same favorable terms of surrender that Major General John Burgoyne had received at Saratoga. This was refused by Washington who imposed the same harsh conditions that the British had demanded of Major General Benjamin Lincoln the year before at Charleston. With no other choice, Cornwallis complied and the final surrender documents were signed on October 19. At noon the French and American armies lined up to await the British surrender. Two hours later the British marched out with flags furled and their bands playing The World Turned Upside Down. Claiming he was ill, Cornwallis sent Brigadier General Charles OHara in his stead. Nearing the allied leadership, OHara attempted to surrender to Rochambeau but was instructed by the Frenchman to approach the Americans. As Cornwallis was not present, Washington directed OHara to surrender to Lincoln, who was now serving as his second-in-command. With the surrender complete, Cornwallis army was taken into custody rather than paroled. Shortly thereafter, Cornwallis was exchanged for Henry Laurens, the former President of the Continental Congress. The fighting at Yorktown cost the allies 88 killed and 301 wounded. British losses were higher and included 156 killed, 326 wounded. In addition, Cornwallis remaining 7,018 men were taken prisoner. The victory at Yorktown was the last major engagement of the American Revolution and effectively ended the conflict in the Americans favor.

The best blogs every HR professional needs to ready

The best blogs every HR professional needs to ready Things are changing all the time in the HR world, so if you’re looking for ways to keep current, you can’t go wrong with blogs. But which one? We have you covered, no matter what avenue you want to explore. Here are some of the best, industry-leading blogs that can help keep you in the loop.The HR CapitalistWritten by Kris Dunn, a longtime HR executive with a passion for efficiency, The HR Capitalist focuses on ways to make your work more streamlined and informed. Highlights include everyday tips, interviews with essential pros, book reviews, and thoughtful essays on current trends. Bonus blog: Dunn also runs Fistful of Talent, which features diverse voices writing about trends and news from recruiting and talent management.PandologicBy putting the gamut of HR topics in one place (like recruiting, recruitment marketing, strategy, data and analytics, advertising, and tech trends), Pandologic gives you a checkpoint for all that’s new and developing in your professi onal world. With its focus on fast-moving trends and future development, this blog is geared toward the professional looking to make- or maintain- forward progress in their organization.Ask a ManagerWho doesn’t love a good advice column? Ask a Manager brings Dear Abby into the HR realm, giving insightful advice on real-life issues faced by professionals in the field. The advice here comes from Alison Green, a longtime management and human resources professional. Green’s philosophy is based on practicality and productivity, using communication to solve problems before they become insurmountable or, worse, career-blockers.The Buzz on HRIn The Buzz on HR, human resources manager Sarah Morgan (who has more than 20 years of experience in the trenches) brings her unique insights to leadership and organizational management. If you’re looking for a daily hit of short trend pieces and breaking news, this may not be the place; but if you want thoughtful, perceptive essays on the experiences and challenges facing the busy HR professional, this one is a great blog to add to your rotation.hbspt.cta.load(2785852, '9e52c197-5b5b-45e6-af34-d56403f973c5', {});HR BartenderWhen happy hour feels too far away (when it’s, say, at 10 a.m. on a Tuesday), you can still get the experience of chatting with a friendly voice who understands that HR is a lifestyle (not just a day job) at HR Bartender. HR professional-turned-consultant Sharlyn Lauby gets that the HR world isn’t just recruitment and data- it’s an integral part of a living, breathing workplace, with human interests and concerns. HR Bartender uses a light, practical approach to the issues facing HR pros.HR ExaminerIf you’re looking for insight into the technology that’s shaping the HR world more and more every day, then HR Examiner can help you geek out to your heart’s content. It’s all about the intersection of technology, analytics, and hands-on HR work. T he blog includes in-depth analysis of trends and products, as well as weekly interviews, newsletters, and podcasts to keep you up-to-the-minute on all the latest tech trends.The Undercover RecruiterUndercover Recruiter is a bit different from the rest of the pack because it brings HR-themed content for several different audiences: the employer, the recruiter, and the job seeker. The blog features a diverse array of writers and topics, covering industry trends, tips for strategy and best practices, and news on the latest trends that affect hiring from all angles.WorkologyWorkology is great because it tackles topics meant for HR pros at every level: newbie, midlevel, management, executive, etc. With more than 100 writers providing news and insight into trends and the HR experience, the blog supports the human resources lifer at every stage of their career. The platform also has extensive social media and podcast content, as well as a weekly newsletter to keep you up on all the news yo u need to know.The best HR blogs are ones that not only inform, but also show how vibrant and diverse the HR community is. Each of these is a great resource that can help you grow and thrive in your organization and find your tribe while you learn everything you need to know.

Organisational design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Organisational design - Essay Example Noncompetitive businesses and institutions such as government controlled administrations mostly thrive on centralised structures. The managers need to consider if they want to achieve the same results where they follow a rigid work routine then they can comfortably rely on a centralised control system. However, if they seek to get the competitive edge, especially if they are in the technology business, then they need to give more autonomy to respective departments and teams. â€Å"†¦a routine technology and a stable environment all tend to be associated with organizations that have greater formalization, specialization and centralisation† (Daft, Murphy, & Willmott, 2010, p. 26) If the managers are in a business that feeds on creative ideas then they need to make their departments autonomous. The tech industry is a prominent example of highly decentralised model because the more innovative and creative their ideas the better their competitive edge. Comparing a government operated tax department with a highly mobilized and competitive firm such as Apple or Samsung would reveal a centralised versus a decentralised business structure. The government department needs to be centralised while tech companies perform better when they are decentralised. Taking the same example a step further where marketing and TV commercials are made for any business. The process needs to be highly decentralised for the initiation of innovative ideas and creative pitch for customers. One thing that bears prime importance in this whole debate is that there are no black and white areas when the managers make a decision. Many organizations usually step on gray areas where there exists a mix of centralised and decentralised chain of command. In fact, decentralised structure poses a paradox for the managers. Giving too much autonomy to a department can be detrimental for the ultimate organizational goals. The head of the business cannot lose control

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY AND NUTRITION Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY AND NUTRITION - Case Study Example The human circulatory system can generally be described as an organ system concerned with transfer of amino acids, the lymph and electrolytes on one hand and gases, blood cells and hormones on the other. From one cell to another throughout the body with the sole purpose of stabilizing the body temperature and keeping watch at disease vectors. Through lymph and blood contents, the system ensures balance in the body Ph and maintenance of the homeostatic processes (Neville, 1983 pg 678). The circulatory system comprises basically of two principle mechanisms that is; cardiovascular and lymphatic systems, the former being concerned with blood distribution and the latter being involved in return of excess filtered blood plasma from between cells and refers to as lymph. Humans exhibit a closed cardiovascular system. Two fluids are formed to circulate throughout the human body system and there are blood and lymph. Lymph is filtered blood plasma from blood cells which are returned to lymphatic systems. Cardiovascular systems comprise of the blood, blood vessels and heart while the lymphatic system comprises of the lymph vessels, lymph and lymph nodes. The circulatory system comprises of two systems, pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. Pulmonary circulation supplies blood to the lungs where blood is purified/ oxygenated whereas the system circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the rest of the body parts. Blood as a tissue constitutes 7% of the total body weight of an average adult. The components of blood include platelets, plasma, red and white blood cells. A point to note is that the circulatory system complements the digestive system in the sense that it provides nutrients the system needs for continued pumping of the heart. Systemic circulation is a system concerned with nourishment of body tissues except the lungs and heart. Blood vessels are responsible for supply of oxygen and nutrients to various body tissues. Re-oxygenated blood enters the

Working in a Total Institution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Working in a Total Institution - Essay Example Prisons have been quite often, referred to as total institutions since they account for the daily aspects of the inmates such as ensuring availability of daily necessities, medical care, rehabilitation amongst several others. The correctional officers employed to supervise the inmates are subjected to rigorous training owing to the occupational hazards their job offers. However considering the personal accounts of several such correctional officers, their personal experiences on the job including their interactions with the prisoners themselves plays a significant role in shaping their role as correctional officers. According to the personal experience shared by an African American woman in a men’s prison â€Å"The inmates are the ones that helped, taught me how to be an officer. Not the staff. †¦.. when you are new at the job the inmates are gonna come and tell you, â€Å"Ma’am, you left a door open† or â€Å"Somebody’s sick†. Because you can’t be at two places at the same time. Nine times out of ten its gonna be the inmates that tells you what’s going on† (Britton, 2003 Pp.95) According to the American Correctional Association, the correctional officers receive training at an average of 262.8 hours in the field of first aid, self defense, race relations as well as other practically relevant subject areas (Levinson, Pp.327). However, the personal accounts of the correctional officers suggest that a majority of inmates share a mutual interest with the officers in terms of maintaining a day to day routine and since they are clearly more knowledgeable than the newly appointed officers they gladly extend their co – operation in maintaining the in prison routines. Besides it has also been reported and confirmed on the basis of substantial amount of research conducted in that behalf, that several officers in training perceive such a training as a form of exaggerated depiction of violence and crime that might be encountered

Road Traffic Accidents In Oman

Road Traffic Accidents In Oman RTAs are the direct cause of three-quarters of all accidental deaths of people between the ages of 15 and 24 years (ROP, 2005). In 2005,688 men, women and children were killed and 6,500 injured in 9247 crashes. There have been nearly 45,000 injured since the year 2000. For every death in a road accident, 2 to 3 young people are permanently disabled (ROP, 2010). Factors Influencing THE High Prevalence of RTAs in Oman Socioeconomic Factors In the last three decades, a large economic growth in the Arabian Gulf countries including Oman took place, due to the discovery of oil. Many aspects of life changed shortly after that. There was a sudden increase both in population and in the number of vehicles and that was also accompanied by a rapid expansion of road construction. All these economic factors have changed many aspects of life and have given the public the opportunity to own private cars ( Bener and Jadaan, 1992), which consequently led to the increased number of accidents around the country. However, the different socioeconomic family condition within the country had its effect on the likelihood of a child or young adult being killed or injured in an RTA. From my personal experience, as a native Omani, children and young adults from a rich families will be using private transport to get to school while the low socioeconomic state family children go to school either by walking or using public transport which, accordi ng to WHO (2007) put them at a higher risk of being involved in an RTA. Behaviour The behaviour of the road user clearly constitutes an important risk factor for RTAs. In Oman careless driving and excess speed are identified as the main causes of RTAs ( ROP, 2010), especially among the age group 15 to 25 years. This age is identified with its complex interaction in terms of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial developmental processes, which result in greater risk-taking (Johnson and Jones 2010). On the other hand, women in Oman are over cautious drivers, which is likely to confuse other road users by their hesitation and thus precipitate a RTA (ROP, 2010). Public Policy The law and the road legislative authority have established a lot of regulations to improve road users safety, like the compulsory wearing of front seat belts, implementation of speed limits and the prohibiting the use of mobile phones during driving (ROP, 2010). However, based on my knowledge and experience, those legislations are loosely applied, which leads to a poor compliance by the community. A study was carried out to examine seat belt wearing in cars entering the Sultan Qaboos University complex on a single day. The study showed that 90.1% of drivers and 80.9% of front seat passengers wore their seat belt. However, only 1.4% of rear seat passengers wore a seat belt. The adherence of the front seat passengers was not as that of the drivers although there were police staff at the gates to the campus and spot checks on the roads frequently result in fines. Researchers also reported that they could see front seat occupants putting on their seat belts as they approached the gates (McIlvenny, 2006 p.3). Health Services The Emergency Medical Services (EMS) is a new service in Oman. It has been developed due to the increase in the prevalence of RTAs. Currently, it is run by trained Emergency Medical Technicians under the sponsorship of the ROP Ambulance Division. The service covers most of the country and responds mainly for trauma emergencies. It is free of charge for all people in Oman. There are plans to increase its coverage to the whole country by 2012. The EMS in Oman has hard challenges especially in terms of geographical constraints (Alshaqsi, 2009). In addition, Oman has one large trauma centre, which opens the discussion for equity in the country in terms of differences in accessibility between urban and rural areas. Religion Islam is the dominant religion in Oman with small representations of Christian, Hindu and Bodehies. Religion in Oman forms a vital part of the community life. In Islam violating the legislation is unacceptable, thus death caused by a RTA is considered to be a murder or a suicide, which are major sins not only in Islam but in all religions. However a Fatwa, which is a reliable regulation on a point of Islamic law, was declared by the highest religious authority in the country; this Fatwa represented the Islamic point of view on the RTA, yet there have been no changes or decrease in the prevalence of the RTAs since the initiation of this Fatwa (AlKalili, 2011). Priority Intervention TO control RTAs IN Oman Most of the factors mentioned above are, in fact, enabling if mobilized effectively within the community to reduce the prevalence of RTAs. Thus, this section will highlight improvements to be considered in order to strengthen the public policy, health services and health education to control RTAs in Oman. Although the priorities in road safety policies cannot be global in nature because of the differing patterns of traffic and RTAs around the world, he supporting evidence on the effectiveness of the suggested interventions is mainly from western countries, which constitute a lot of differences in terms of context. That is because of the very small amount of road safety research that is done in Oman and neighboring countries, especially in the interventions that are suggested in the next section. However, the implementation of these interventions is feasible in the context of Oman. Public Policy The strict application of the existing legislation and its penalties is very essential, then benchmarking of some other safety legislations, which were shown to be effective in other countries, could be adopted. One of these legislation, for instance, is the mandatory use of rear seat-belts and child restrainers, which proved effective in reducing the seriousness of injuries thus reducing the of fatality, especially among the most vulnerable age groups, children and young adults. (Kendall and Bodiwala,1994). Readjusting the speed limits according to the international recommendation and then strict enforcement of it will result in fewer injuries. A good example of the effect of such legislation is the introduction of speed cameras in London over a six year period, which resulted in a remarkable reduction in deaths and serious injuries (West,1998). Safer design of roads and roadside environments is also important, especially in the rural areas of Oman where the roads are narrow and not straight, have no lights at night and no side guardrails or crash barriers. These interventions have resulted in fewer injuries when implemented in other countries (Elvilc, 1995). Improvements In Health Services Although the health service in Oman has a well established infrastructure, there are some interventions that could improve RTA survivals when implemented and these can be categorized in to three stages, pre-hospital, in hospital and post-hospital trauma care; Pre-hospital trauma care Although the EMS in Oman is functioning well since it was started a few years ago geographical constrains do play a major role in the speed of arrival of the EMS to the place of the RTA, as the small population of the country is scattered in a large land area; there are people who live on the mountains and others deep in the deserts, and due to these constraints a community based pre-hospital strategy was suggested by WHO (2005). Basically, it is teaching some interested community members the basic first aid and pre-hospital trauma care techniques. Those first responders can be taught to call for help and provide the first aid until health-care personnel arrive to give the necessary care. These individuals could be, for instance, taxi drivers, high school students river, high school students or the community leaders. In-hospital trauma care One large trauma centre for the whole country is situated in the capital. However, the north side of the country is as far as 12 hours driving or a two-hour flight, which constitutes a high risk in transporting RTA traumatised patients to this national trauma centre. Thus providing this kind of services at the secondary hospitals that are situated almost in all the regions of the country can play a major role in speeding up the necessary interventions and improving the survival of the RTA victims. Post-hospital trauma care (Rehabilitation system) The centralised rehabilitation care for the RTA patients needs to be decentralised and made easily accessible to all the population and in this respect the equity issue, between the urban and rural, should be considered. In summary, in providing health services for the RTAs, to improve survival rates an integrated approach between the three levels of care is strongly recommended in the literature and has proven its effectiveness (Hedstrom and Garneski 2006) Health Education. Many educational programs have been established for the prevention of RTAs in Oman. However, there is no significant statistical data related to the effect of those programs. On the other hand, Wood and Bellis (2010) argue that comprehensive interventions that engage the community at large and combine strategies such as education programmes and traffic calming measures have shown their effectiveness in Australia, USA and UK. in reducing the incidence of RTAs. Conclusion RTAs are a major public health issue in Oman. In order to develop a health promotion approach to it, community mobilisation and empowerment along with improvements, reinforcement of public health policies and the health care services is the key to prevention and the reduction in injuries. Part Two: Roads: A Health Promoting Setting introduction Road traffic accidents (RTAs) is a growing public health problem in Oman; from the discussion in part one of this assignment, evidence showed the significant impact of changing and promoting the road settings as well as the enforcement of road safety regulations. This document will present a health promotion strategy taking the roads as the setting to be addressed in order to make roads safer for everyone. Aims To establish a sustainable infrastructure that promotes road safety, and to empower the community to make the appropriate health protecting decisions through advocating healthy public policies on road safety. To increase the level of knowledge and skills of RTAs prevention through the mass media. To address inequalities in health services for RTA casualties in Oman due to geographical reasons, and empower the community to build their capacity to reduce and prevent RTA injuries. To encourage young adults in the community (15 to 25) to change their aggressive driving behavior and adopt healthier attitudes towards road safety. Health Promoting setting Health Promoting Roads Although the literature studied did not directly discuss roads as a setting for health promotion, the majority of RTA prevention and health promoting strategies are directly linked to the roads and the road users. Thus I strongly believe that in the case of RTA prevention, roads are the appropriate setting for a road safety health promotion programme. This programme is going to target all the road users (drivers, passengers, cyclists and pedestrians) at a national level. Moreover, the programme will constitute multiple integrated approaches; firstly, the medical approach, which will aim to reduce. the premature fatality due to RTAs by advocating for community, participation in the provision of first aid for RTA victims in the rural areas, where the emergency medical services EMS could be delayed due to geographical constraints. Secondly, the educational approach, which will aim to provide the knowledge and skills to the targeted group in order to assist them to make an informed choice to adapt a healthy behaviour when using the roads. Thirdly, social change approach which will aim to focus on the public health policy changes and physical infrastructure changes and improvements of roads that will eventually lead to safer roads for every one (Naidoo and Wills 2009; Bener and Crundall 2004) Tones framework model on health promotion (1994) explains the relationship between health education and health promotion. However, this framework could be adapted in this assignment to also explain the relationship of the different approaches used in order to eventually empower the community.Working for empowerment enhances individual autonomy and enables individuals, groups and communities to take more control over their lives(Naidoo and Wills 2000 pp.108-109). HEALTH Lobbying, Advocacy Health services Health promotion organisations Critical consciences arising Agenda setting Empowered participating community Public pressure Empowerment Health choices Professional education Education for health Healthy social and physical environment Healthy public policy (Adapted from Tones and Tilford 1994, cited in Naidoo and Wills 2000 p.108 AIM 1: To establish a sustainable infrastructure that promotes road safety, and to empower the community to make the appropriate healthy decision through advocating healthy public policy on road safety. Objectives Activities To identify and compile existing best practices in road structure, which promote road safety for all road users. Arrange meeting with the stakeholders involving experts to agree on the means of researching and gathering evidence Involve the community leaders to give their input Introduction of new speed limit legislation Introduction of rear seat belt legislation Introduction of child restrainers in cars Advocate for new legislation, providing the evidence of its effectiveness in promoting the road safety and prevention of RTAs. AIM 2: To increase the level of knowledge and skills of RTAs prevention through the mass media objectives Activities stakeholders Improve the community understanding of safety road usage, to enable them to change their behavior toward safer roads utilization Road safety campaigns using the mass media Radio drama and road posters on the following issues; Use of seat belts, front, rear and child restrainers Speed limits, the consequence of adherence to legislated limits. Compulsory regular breaks for the bus drivers -Director of the media in the country -Police authority Community leaders Experts in the field AIM 3: To address inequalities in health services for RTA causalities in Oman due to geographical reasons, and empowering the community to build their capacity to reduce fatalities due to RTA injuries. objectives Activities stakeholders Expand the EMS for all the country Empower some of the community members to participate in pre-hospital care. Train motivated community members like high school students, taxi drivers and community leaders in providing first aid and trauma life saving techniques. Short courses provided by trainers from paramedical training institution in a community setting like schools or the social gathering places (common in rural areas). Legal authority Training institutions Police authority Community leaders Schools managers AIM 4: To encourage young adults in the community (15 to 25) to change their aggressive driving behavior and adopt healthier attitudes towards roads safety objectives Activities stakeholders Introduce a road safety programme in high schools To adopt criteria for licensing which includes the attitude of the driver . Road safety school curriculum for high school students Thought materials for driving schools Education authority Police authority School managers Driving training institution managers Evaluation plan of the health promoting roads program According to Naidoo and Wills (2000), the value of a health promotion intervention can be judged by considering the following criteria: effectiveness; were the aims and objectives met and to what extent (reduction of the RTAs), appropriateness; were the suggested interventions relevant to the problem, acceptability; were the interventions culturally and religiously sensitive, efficiency; how a resource was spent and equity; since it is a national programme did it cover all the country with the consideration of high vulnerability areas. Aims of the evaluation To assess short term outcomes: attitudes of the drivers on the roads in terms of adherence to the speed limits and seat belt regulations. To evaluate mid-term: process of implementation. To assess the long term outcomes: achievement of the goals Objectives The short term evaluation of the programme will be done after one year to evaluate the process of the implementation and after four years to assess the impact of the programme in the prevention of RTAs and reducing the severity of injuries Short Term Evaluation and Verification Means Number of stakeholders who participated in the planning process Number of the community leaders who participated in the traffic legislation changes Number of the new traffic legislations initiated Number of mass media programmes initiated Number of traffic offences due to poor compliance with the seat belt and speed regulations. Number of community volunteers enrolled in the trauma first aid programme Mid-Term Evaluation and Verification Means Number of road infrastructure changes, improvements and maintenance projects planned and budgeted School road safety curriculum implementation Long-Term Evaluation and Verification Means Percentage of RTA reduction from all the regions in the country. Percentage of deaths, injuries caused by RTAs and the type and severity of the injuries. Sustainability of all the initiated interventions Research of changes in high school students behavior in regard to aggressive driving and speed limits. Changes and improvements in experts inspection and evaluation of the roads infrastructure. Conclusion Safer Roads for Everyone is a health promoting programme that will include many detailed interventions, but it is not intended to be a rigid plan. The plan and targets will be reviewed periodically to take account of new ideas from all stakeholders and the community, also to consider new evidence based interventions and new technologies. A Road Safety Advisory board will be initiated to assist in the review of the whole process.

the Problem Of Place In America And my Neighborhood: The Breakdown :: essays research papers

"The Problem of Place in America" and "My Neighborhood": The Breakdown of Community WR 121 Paper #2 In Ray Oldenburg's "The Problem of Place in America" and Ishmael Reed's "My Neighborhood" the authors express thier dissatisfaction with the community. Oldenburg focuses on the lack of a "third place" and the effects of consumerism on the suburbs, while Reed recalls his experience with prejudice communities. Their aim is to identify problems in our society that they find to be a problem. Although neither of these authors offer solutions, the fact that these problems are addressed is enough. Some basic similarities between these two authors is they are both attempting to identify problems in our society today. There are many that are ailing our society at this time, yet I agree with them in their deductions. It seems that they have addressed two of the main ills today, prejudice and consumerism. These keep our communities from becoming unified. Fear is one of the prevalent themes in both essays. In Oldenburg's essay the suburbanite fears the unknown, his neighbors. People feel threatened by the size of the communities and they do not know anyone. These is due partly to consumerism, which keeps people indoors. Reed was feared because of the color of his skin. Dogs would bark at him as he walked by, cops would enter his own home to harass him, people would yell racial slurs, and he was even watched closely to make sure that he did not abduct a child off the street. These fears are a result of the media and our society telling us to fear certain types of people. Television often portrays the black man as a dope dealing slander who hangs out on corners with a forty of "Old E." Soon people begin to believe all that they hear and begin to discriminate against others. One glaring difference in the two authors essays is that they both address the same problem yet they touch on differing aspects. Oldenburg talks about the deterioration of the suburbs. One reason is that there is no third place. This is where we come to grips with our lives, relax, and reflect. This could be a community center, a secluded spot in the woods, or a coffee shop at the corner. The problem is that these places simply do not exist in the suburbs. One must get in their car, use gas, and drive to a place of meeting. This means planning out the whole rendezvous point in advance and making sure that the person you want to meet can be there. Consumerism also keeps the community